Changes to policies for work and retirement in EU15 nations (1995–2005)
Article Sidebar
Main Article Content
Abstract
’’Active ageing’’ policies have been presented as a potential panacea for the conflict between generations many argue will result from demographic ageing. Indeed, as part of a new intergenerational contract, older individuals (here defined as those aged 50-64) are expected to re-engage with, and remain in, the labour market longer. However, this implies all individuals experience the same policy mix. This study uses micro-level data to address changes to work and retirement policies for older individuals from 1995 to 2005, and the resultant alterations to the degree of choice in terms of labour market participation different sub-groups within this age cohort had. The data demonstrate that the policy shift towards ’’active ageing’’ is not universally applied to all older individuals as some retain the ability to early exit from the labour market. Thus the notion of a single intergenerational contract is overly simplistic and neglects a great deal of intragenerational difference.
Metrics
Article Details
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 3.0 Unported License.
Since 2020 the International Journal of Ageing and Later Life uses a Creative Commons: Attribution license, which allows users to distribute the work and to reform or build upon it without the author's permission. Full reference to the author must be given.
References
Anderson, E. (2004). Welfare, work requirements, and dependant-care. Journal of Applied Philosophy 21(3): 243–247. [Read this article]
Avramov, D. & Maskova, M. (2003). Active ageing in Europe: Volume 1 (pp. 13–26). Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing.
Bengtson, V., Putney, N. & Johnson, M. (2005). The problem of theory in gerontology today. In M. Johnson (ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of Age and Ageing (pp. 3–21). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [Read this article]
Bettio, F. & Plantenga, J. (2004). Comparing care regimes in Europe. Feminist Economics 10(1): 85–113. [Read this article]
Boldrin, M., Jimenez-Martin, S. & Peracchi, F. (1999). Social security and retirement in Spain. In J. Gruber & D. Wise (eds.), Social Security and Retirement Around the World (pp. 305–355). Chicago, IL: Chicago University Press.
Bradshaw, J., Ditch, J., Holmes, H. & Whiteford, P. (1993). Child support in fifteen countries. Journal of European Social Policy 3(4): 255–271. [Read this article]
Carmel, E., Hamblin, K. & Papadopoulos, T. (2007). Governing the activation of older workers in the European Union: The construction of the ‘activation retiree’. International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy 27(9/10): 387–400. [Read this article]
Carr, D. & Sheridan, J. (2001). Family turning-points and career transitions at midlife. In V. Marshall, W. Heinz, H. Kru¨ ger & A. Verma (eds.), Restructuring Work and the Life Course (pp. 209–229). Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press.
Chuliá, E. & Asensio, M. (2007). Portugal: In search of a stable framework. In E. Immergut, K. Anderson & I. Schulze (eds.), The Handbook of West European Pension Politics (pp. 499–554). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Commission of the European Communities (CEC). (1999). Towards a Europe for all ages-promoting prosperity and intergenerational solidarity COM (1999) 221 final. Available on http://ec.europa.eu/employment_social/social_situation/docs/com221_en.pdf (Accessed: April 16, 2009).
Commission of the European Communities (CEC). (2002). Europe’s response to world ageing: Promoting economic and social progress in an ageing world. A contribution of the European commission to the 2nd world assembly on ageing COM (2002) 143 final. Available on http://europa.eu.int/comm/employment_social/social_situation/docs/com2002_0143_en.pdf (Accessed: November 12, 2005).
Commission of the European Communities (CEC). (2005). Green paper Confronting demographic change: A new solidarity between the generations, Brussels, 16.3.2005 COM (2005) 94 final. Available on http://europa.eu.int/comm/employment_social/news/2005/mar/comm2005-94_en.pdf (Accessed: July 11, 2005).
Committee of the Regions. (2003). Older people in Working Life: Presentation of Relevant Actions by Local and Regional Authorities. Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities.
Crompton, R., Dennett, J. & Wigfield, A. (2003). Organisations, Careers and Caring. Bristol: The Policy Press for the Joseph Rowntree Foundation. Available on http://www.jrf.org.uk/sites/files/jrf/jr125-carers-employment-policies.pdf (Accessed: February 12, 2009).
de Vroom, B. (2004). The shift from early to late exit: Changing institutional conditions and individual preferences: The case of the Netherlands. In B. de Vroom, B. Maltby, M. Mirabile & E. Øverbye (eds.), Ageing and Transitions into Retirement: A Comparative Analysis of European Welfare States (pp. 120–154). Aldershot: Ashgate.
Delsen, L. (2002). Active strategies for older workers in the Netherlands. In M. Jepsen, D. Foden & M. Hutsebaut (eds.), Active Strategies for Older Workers (pp. 299–332). Brussels: European Trade Union Institute.
Department of Enterprise, Trade and Employment. (1999). Ireland employment action plan 1999. Available on http://ec.europa.eu/employment_social/news/1999/may/nap1999irl_en.pdf (Accessed June 12, 2007).
Dogan, M. & Pelassy, D. (1990). How to Compare Nations: Strategies in Comparative Politics. Chatham: Chatham House Publishers.
Drury, E. (1993). Age Discrimination Against Older Workers in the European Community. London: Eurolink Age.
Duncan, C. (2003). Assessing anti-ageism routes to older worker re-engagement, work. Employment and Society 17(1): 101–121. [Read this article]
Ebbinghaus, B. (2006). Reforming early retirement in Europe, Japan and the USA. Oxford: Oxford University Press. [Read this article]
Eichhorst, W. & Rhein, T. (2005). The European employment strategy and welfare state reform: The case of increased labour market participation of older workers. Paper Presented at the 9th Conference of the EUSA, 31 March–2 April 2005. Austin, TX, USA.
Estes, C. (1991). The new political economy of ageing: Introduction and critique. In M. Minkler & C. Estes (eds.), Critical Perspectives on Aging: The Political and Moral Economy of Growing Old (pp. 19–36). New York: Baywood Publishing.
Estes, C. (1999). The aging enterprise revisited. In M. Minkler & C. Estes (eds.), Critical Gerontology: Perspectives from Political and Moral Economy (pp. 135–145). New York: Baywood Publishing Company.
European Commission (EC). (1994). Social Protection in the Member States of the Community: Situation on July 1st 1993 and Evolution. Brussels: Commission of the European Communities.
European Commission (EC). (1996). Social Protection in the Member States of the European Union: Situation on 1 July 1995 and Evolution. Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities.
European Commission (EC). (2000). EU employment and social policy, 1999–2001: Jobs, cohesion, productivity, employment and social affairs. Available on http://ec.europa.eu/employment_social/publications/2001/ke3801681_en.pdf (Accessed: April 16, 2009).
European Commission (EC). (2001). Old Age in Europe. Luxembourg: Office for the Official Publications of the European Communities.
European Commission (EC). (2006). Adequate and sustainable pensions: Technical annex. Available on http://ec.europa.eu/employment_social/social_protection/docs/2006/sec_2006_304_horizontalanalysis_en.pdf (Accessed: April 16, 2009).
Ferrera, M. & Jessoula, M. (2007). Italy: A narrow gate for path-shift. In E. Immergut, K. Anderson & I. Schulze (eds.), The Handbook of West European Pension Politics (pp. 396–445). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Forteza, J. & Garcıá-Zarco, B. (1998). Spain. In P. Taylor (ed.), Projects Assisting Older Workers In European Countries: A Review of the Findings of Eurolink Age (pp. 143–165). Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities.
Gould, R. & Saurama, L. (2004). From early exit culture to the policy of active ageing: The case of Finland. In T. Maltby, B. De Vroom, M. Mirabile & E. Øverbye, (eds.), Ageing and Transitions into Retirement: A Comparative Analysis of European Welfare States (pp. 7–92). Aldershot: Ashgate.
Guillemard, A. (1991). France: Massive exit through unemployment compensation. In M. Kohli, M. Rein, A. Guillemard & H. Gunsteren (eds.), Time for Retirement: Comparative Studies of Early Exit from the Labor Force (pp. 67–96). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Guillemard, A. (1993). Older Workers and the Labour Market. In A. Walker, A. Gulliemard & J. Alber, (eds.), Older People in Europe: Social and Economic Policies. The 1993 Report of the European Observatory, (M. Gauna), (pp. 35–48). Luxembourg: Commission of the European Communities.
Guillemard, A. & Argoud, D. (2004). France: A country with a deep early exit culture. In T. Maltby, B. de Vroom, M. L. Mirabile & E. Øverbye (eds.), Ageing and the Transition to Retirement: A Comparative Analysis of European Welfare States (pp. 165–186). Aldershot: Ashgate.
Guillemard, A. & Rein, M. (1993). Comparative patterns of retirement: Recent trends in developed societies. Annual Review of Sociology 19: 469–503. [Read this article]
Hansen, H. (2002). Active strategies for older workers in Denmark. In M. Jepsen, D. Foden & M. Hutsebaut, (eds.), Active Strategies for Older Workers (pp. 171–198). Brussels: European Trade Union Institute.
Heinz, W. (2001). Work and the life course: A cosmopolitan-local perspective. In V. Marshall, W. Heinz, H. Krüger & A. Verma (eds.), Restructuring Work and the Life Course (pp. 3–23). Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press.
Hemerijck, A., Unger, B. & Visser, J. (2000). How small countries negotiate change. Twenty-five years of policy adjustment in Austria, the Netherlands, and Belgium. In F. Scharpf & V. Schmidt (eds.), Welfare and Work in the Open Economy (pp. 175–263). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Himmelweit, S. & Land, H. (2008). Reducing gender inequalities to create a sustainable care system. The Joseph Rowntree Foundation. Available on http://www.jrf.org.uk/knowledge/findings/socialcare/pdf/2293.pdf (Accessed: February 2, 2009).
Immergut, E. & Anderson, K. (2007). Editors’ introduction: The dynamics of pension politics. In E. Immergut, K. Anderson & I. Schulze (eds.), The Handbook of West European Pension Politics (pp. 1–37). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Immergut, E. Anderson, K. & Schulze, I. (eds.). (2007). The Handbook of West European Pension Politics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Jacobs, K. & Rein, M. (1994). Early retirement: Stability, reversal, or redefinition. In F. Naschold & B. de Vroom (eds.), Regulating Employment and Welfare: Company and National Policies of Labour Force Participation at the End of Worklife in Industrial Countries (pp. 19–49). Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.
Jensen, P. (2004). Ageing and work: From ‘Early’ exit to ‘Late’ exit in Denmark. In T. Maltby, B. De Vroom, M. Mirabile & E. Øverbye (eds.), Ageing and Transitions into Retirement: A Comparative Analysis of European Welfare States (pp. 49–67). Aldershot: Ashgate.
Jolivet, A. (2002). Active strategies for older workers in France. In M. Jepsen, D. Foden & M. Hutsebaut (eds.), Active Strategies for Older Workers (pp. 248–258). Brussels: European Trade Union Institute.
Kathimerini. (2003). OAED programs. Available on: http://www.ekathimerini.com/4dcgi/_w_articles_ell_1_20/06/2003_30979 (Accessed August 23, 2007).
Klercq, J. (1998). The Netherlands. In P. Taylor (ed.), Projects Assisting Older Workers In European Countries: A Review of the Findings of Eurolink Age (pp. 72–78). Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities.
Knijn, T. & Kremer, M. (1997). Gender and the caring dimension of welfare state: Toward inclusive citizenship. Social Politics 4(3): 328–361.
Künemund, H. & Kolland, F. (2007). Work and retirement. In J. Bond, S. Peace, F. Dittmann-Kohli & G. Westerhof (eds.), Ageing in Society (pp. 167–185). London: Sage.
Lafoucrière, C. (2002). Active strategies for older workers: The European picture today. In M. Jepsen, D. Foden & M. Hutsebaut (eds.), Active Strategies for Older Workers (pp. 51–83). Brussels: European Trade Union Institute.
Mangen, S. (1999). Qualitative research methods in cross-national settings. International Journal of Social Research Methodology 2(2): 109–124. [Read this article]
Marshall, V. & Taylor, P. (2005). Restructuring the lifecourse: Work and retirement. In M. Johnson (ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of Age and Ageing (pp. 572–582). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [Read this article]
Merla, L. (2004). Belgium: From early to progressive retirement. In T. Maltby, B. De Vroom, M. Mirabile & E. Øverbye (eds.), Ageing and Transitions into Retirement: A Comparative Analysis of European Welfare States (pp. 6–18). Aldershot: Ashgate.
Mestheneos, E. (1998). Greece. In P. Taylor (ed.), Projects Assisting Older Workers In European Countries: A Review of the Findings of Eurowork Age (pp. 65–74). Employment and European Social Fund, Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities.
Meyer, T., Bridgen, P. & Riedmüller, B. (eds.). (2007). Private Pensions Versus Social Inclusion? Non-State Provisions for Citizens at Risk in Europe. Cheltenham: Edwards Elgar.
Meyer, T. & Pfau-Effinger, B. (2006). Gender arrangements and pension systems in Britain and Germany: Tracing change over five decades. International Journal of Ageing and Later Life 1(2): 67–110. [Read this article]
Millar, J. (1999). Obligations and autonomy in social welfare. In R. Crompton (ed.), Restructuring Gender Relations and Employment: The Decline of the Male Breadwinner (pp. 26–39). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Miller, D. (1989). Social Justice. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Mirabile, M. (2004). Ageing and work in Italy. In T. Maltby, B. De Vroom, M. Mirabile & E. Øverbye (eds.), Ageing and Transitions into Retirement: A Comparative Analysis of European Welfare States (pp. 220–240). Aldershot: Ashgate.
Moss, N. & Arrowsmith, J. (2003). A review of ‘What Works’ for clients aged over 50. Department of Work and Pensions. Available on http://www.dwp.gov.uk/jad/2003/174rep.pdf (Accessed: June 12, 2008).
Nazroo, J. (2006). Ethnicity and old age. In J. Vincent, C. Phillipson & M. Downs (eds.), The Futures of Old Age (pp. 63–73). London: Sage.
Organisation of Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). (1997). Ageing working papers. Maintaining prosperity in an ageing society: the OECD study on the policy implications of ageing. Working paper AWP 3.4: Retirement income systems- the reform process across OECD countries. Available on http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/20/58/2429570.pdf (Accessed: May 09, 2007).
Organisation of Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). (2000). Reforms for an Ageing Society. Paris: OECD Publishing.
Organisation of Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). (2005a). Ageing and Employment Policies: Austria. Paris: OECD Publishing.
Organisation of Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). (2005b). Ageing and Employment Policies: Belgium. Paris: OECD Publishing.
Organisation of Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). (2005c). Ageing and Employment Policies: Denmark. Paris: OECD Publishing.
Organisation of Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). (2005d). Ageing and Employment Policies: Finland. Paris: OECD Publishing.
Organisation of Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). (2005e). Ageing and Employment Policies: France. Paris: OECD Publishing.
Organisation of Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). (2005f). Ageing and Employment Policies: Germany. Paris: OECD Publishing.
Organisation of Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). (2005g). Ageing and Employment Policies: Italy. Paris: OECD Publishing.
Organisation of Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). (2005h). Ageing and Employment Policies: Luxembourg. Paris: OECD Publishing.
Organisation of Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). (2005i). Ageing and Employment Policies: Portugal. Paris: OECD Publishing.
Organisation of Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). (2005j). Ageing and Employment Policies: Sweden. Paris: OECD Publishing.
Organisation of Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). (2006). Ageing and Employment Policies: Live Longer, Work Longer. Paris: OECD Publishing.
Pfau-Effinger, B. (1999). The modernization of family and motherhood in Western Europe. In R. Crompton (ed.), Restructuring Gender Relations and Employment: The Decline of the Male Breadwinner (pp. 1–25). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Rose, R. (1991). Comparing forms of comparative analysis. Political Studies 39(3): 446–462. [Read this article]
Schulze, I. & Moran, M. (2007). United Kingdom: Pension politics in an adversarial system. In E. Immergut, K. Anderson & I. Schulze (eds.), The Handbook of West European Pension Politics (pp. 49–82). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Taylor, P. (ed.). (1998). Projects Assisting Older Workers in European Countries: A Review of the Findings of Eurolink Age. Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities.
Taylor, P. (2005). New Policies for Older Workers. Bristol: The Policy Press.
Teipen, C. & Kohli, M. (2004). Early retirement in Germany. In T. Maltby, B. De Vroom, M. Mirabile & E. Øverbye (eds.), Ageing and Transitions into Retirement: A Comparative Analysis of European Welfare States (pp. 93–119). Aldershot: Ashgate.
Tikkanen, T. (1998). Nordic countries. In P. Taylor (ed.), Projects Assisting Older Workers In European Countries: A Review of the Findings of Eurolink Age (pp. 96–116). Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities.
Uusitalo, R. & Koskela, E. (2003). The Un-Intended Convergence: How the Finnish Unemployment Reached the European Level. Helsinki: Palkansaajien Tutkimuslaitos Tyo¨papereita [Labour Institute for Economic Research Discussion Papers].
Vandenbroucke, G. & van der Hallen, P. (2002). Active strategies for older workers in Belgium. In M. Jepsen & M. Hutsebaut (eds.), Active Strategies for Older Workers (pp. 141–168). Brussels: ETUI.
Venge, P. (1998). Denmark. In P. Taylor, (ed.), Projects Assisting Older Workers in European Countries: A Review of the Findings of Eurolink Age (pp. 40–46). Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities.
Vinni, K. (2002). Active strategies for older workers in Finland. In M. Jepsen, D. Foden & M. Hutsebaut (eds.), Active Strategies for Older Workers (pp. 345–354). Brussels: European Trade Union Institute.
Walker, A. (1993). Living standards and way of life. In A. Walker, A. Gullemard & S. Alber (eds.), Older People in Europe: Social and Economic Policies. The 1993 Report of the European Observatory (pp. 9–30). Luxembourg: Commission of the European Communities.
Walker, A. (2002). A strategy for active ageing. International Social Security Review 55: 121–139. [Read this article]
Walker, A. & Naegele, G. (1999). Introduction. In G. Naegele & A. Walker (eds.), The Politics of Old Age in Europe (pp. 1–7). Buckingham: Open University Press.
Walker, A. & Phillipson, C. (1986). Introduction. In C. Phillipson & A. Walker (eds.), Ageing and Social Policy (pp. 1–12). Aldershot: Ashgate.
White, S. (2000). Review article: Social rights and the social contract – political theory and the new welfare politics. British Journal of Policy Studies 30: 507–532.
White, S. (2004). What’s wrong with workfare? Journal of Applied Philosophy 21(3): 271–285. [Read this article]