Using a life course perspective to understand early labor market exits for people in their late 50s living in the UK
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Dec 14, 2020
Keywords:
labor market exits;, barriers; retirement;, life course, narrative, agency
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Abstract
This paper explores the reasons why people exit the UK labor market early and some of the barriers working against them returning. The specific focus is a qualitative exploration of three out of work individuals, approaching the age of 60, each of whom had experienced poverty and periods of worklessness during their lifetime. The fieldwork took place in 2016 and was part of a wider mixed methods study about retirement, which used data from the 1958 birth cohort study. Researchers used narrative interviews to uncover the lived experiences and realities of these three people’s lives, and applied a life course perspective to understand how the accumulation of advantages and disadvantages during their lives shapes their attitudes and expectations. The data also show the effects of money, health, and previous employment on their decision making, and how structures such as social class, gender, and poverty are represented in and through the stories they tell.
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References
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Banks, J. & Smith, J. P. (2012). International comparisons in health econom¬ics: Evidence from aging studies. Annual Review of Economics 4: 57–81.
Beehr, T. A. (2014). To retire or not to retire: That is not the question. Journal of Organizational Behavior, (Special Issue) 35(8): 1093–108.
Brown, P. & Vickerstaff, S. (2011). Health subjectivities and labor market par¬ticipation: Pessimism and older workers’ attitudes and narratives around retirement in the United Kingdom. Research on Aging 33(5): 529–550.26
Candappa, M. (2017). Case studies. In J. Swain (ed.), Designing Research in Education: Concepts and Methodologies (pp. 173–192). London: Sage.
Carpentieri, J. & Elliott, J. (2014). Understanding healthy aging using a qualitative approach: The value of narratives and individual biogra¬phies. In D. Kuh, R. Cooper, & R. Hardy (eds.), A Life Course Approach to Healthy Ageing (pp. 118–129). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Carpentieri, J. D., Goodman, A., Parsons, S., Patalay, P. & Swain, J. (2017). Lifetime Poverty and Attitudes to Retirement among a Cohort Born in 1958. London: Centre for Longitudinal Studies. Available on https://cls. ucl.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/JRF-retirement-report-FI-NAL-August-3-20172.pdf (Accessed: June 10, 2019)
Du Prel, J-B., Schrettenbrunner, C. & Hasselhorm, H. M. (2019). Vertical and horizontal social inequality and motivations for early retirement. Zietschrift fur Gerontologie und Geriatrie 52(1): 3–13.
DWP (Department for Work and Pensions). (2017). Fuller Working Lives: Evidence Base 2017. Available on https://www.gov.uk/government/ publications/fuller-working-lives-evidence-base-2017 (Accessed: June 21, 2019).
Ebbinghaus, B. & Radl, J. (2015). Pushed out prematurely? Comparing ob¬jectively forced exits and subjective assessments of involuntary retire¬ment across Europe. Research in Social Stratification and Mobility 41(9): 115–130.
Ekerdt, D. J. (2009). Frontiers of research on work and retirement. The Jour¬nals of Gerontology: Series B. 65B(1): 65–80.
Elder, G. (1994). Time, human agency, and social change: Perspectives on the life course. Social Psychology Quarterly 57(1): 4–15.
Elder, G. H. & Giele, J. Z. (eds.) (2009). The Craft of Life Course Research. New York: Guilford Press.
Elder, G. H., Johnson, M. K. & Crosnoe, R. (2003). The emergence and development of life course theory. In J. T. Mortimer & M. Shanahan (eds.) Handbook of the Life Course (pp. 3–19). New York, NY: Kluwer Publishers.
Elliott, J. (2005). Using Narrative in Social Research: Qualitative and Quantita¬tive Approaches. London: Sage.
Emirbayer, M. & Mische A. (1998). What is agency? American Journal of Sociology 42(4): 962–1023.27
Esping-Andersen, G. (1996). Welfare States in Transition: National Adaptions in Global Economies. London: Sage.
Evans, K., Schoon, I. & Weale, M. (2013). Can lifelong learning reshape life chances? British Journal of Educational Studies 61(1): 25–47.
Evans, K. & Biasin, C. (2017). Exploring agency, learning and identity in women’s life trajectories in United Kingdom and Italy – Exploración de la agencia, el aprendizaje y la identidad en las trayectorias de vida de las mujeres en el Reino Unido e Italia. Revista Española de Educación Comparada 29: 15–32.
Fleischmann, M., Koster, F., Dukstra, P. & Schipppers, J. (2013). Hello pen¬sion, goodbye tension? The impact of work and institutions on older workers’ labor market participation in Europe. International Journal of Ageing and Later Life 8(2): 33–67.
Formosa, M. (2014). Four decades of universities of the third age: Past, present, future. Ageing & Society 34(1): 42–66.
Foster, L. (2018). Active ageing, pensions and retirement in the UK. Journal of Population Ageing 11(2): 117–132.
Haddad, M. (2006). Civic responsibility and patterns of voluntary partic¬ipation around the world. Comparative Political Studies 39: 1220–1242.
Hallerod, B., Orestig, J. & Stattin, M. (2013). Leaving the labour market: The impact of exit routes from employment to retirement on health and wellbeing in old age. European Journal of Ageing 10(1): 25–35.
Hamblin, K. A. H. (2010). Changes to policies for work and retirement in EU15 nations (1995–2005): An exploration of policy packages for the 50-plus cohort. International Journal of Ageing and Later Life 5(1): 13–43.
Heinz, W. H., Huinink, J. & Weymann, A. (Eds.). (2009). The Life Course Reader: Individuals and Societies Across Time (Frankfurt, Campus). Available on https://beckassets.blob.core.windows.net/product/readingsam-ple/493922/9783593388052_excerpt_001.pdf (Accessed: June 10, 2019)
Henretta, J. (2003). The life-course perspective on work and retirement. In R. Settersten (ed.), Invitation to the Life Course (pp. 85–106). London: Routledge.
Hofaecker, D., Hess, M. & Koenig, S. (2019). Change of retirement transi¬tion in the political paradigm shift in Europe. Late career and retire¬ment transitions in Germany, Austria, Sweden and Estonia. Zeitschrift fur Gerontologie und Geriatrie 52(1): 40–51.28
Hovbrandt, P., Hakansson, C., Albin, M., Carlsson, G. & Nilsson, K. (2019). Prerequisites and driving forces behind an extended working life among older workers. Scandinavian Journal of Occupational Therapy 26(3): 171–183.
Klinenberg, E. (2012). Going Solo: The Extraordinary Rise and Surprising Ap¬peal of Living Alone. New York, NY: The Penguin Press.
Klinenberg, E. (2016). Social isolation, loneliness, and living alone: Iden¬tifying the risks for public health. American Journal of Public Health 106(5): 786–787 doi: 10.2105/AJPH.2016.303166
Komp, K., Van Tilburg, T. & Van Groenou, M. B. (2010). Paid work be¬tween age 60 and 70 years in Europe: A matter of socio-economic sta¬tus? International Journal of Ageing and Later Life 5(1): 45–75.
Labov, W. & Waletzky, J. (1967). Narrative analysis: Oral versions of per¬sonal experience. In J. Helm (ed.), Essays on the Verbal and Visual Arts (pp. 12–44). Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press.
Lain, D. & Vickerstaff, S. (2015). National Report: United Kingdom. Berlin: Federal Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs (BMAS) and Federal In¬stitute for Occupational Safety and Health. Available on www.jp-de¬mographic.eu (Accessed: June 21, 2019).
Leinonen, T., Martikainen, P. & Myrskylae, M. (2018). Working life and retirement expectancies at age 50 by social class: Period and cohort trends and projections for Finland. Journals of Gerontology Series B-Psy¬chological Sciences and Social Sciences 73(2): 302–313.
Liebow, E. (1967). Tally’s Corner. A Study of Negro Street Corner Men. Bos¬ton, MA: Little, Brown.
McLaughlin, J. S. & Neumark, D. (2018). Barriers to later retirement for men: Physical challenges of work and increases in full retirement age. Research on Aging 40(3): 232–256.
Moen, P. (1996). A life course perspective on retirement, gender and well-being. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology 1(2): 131–144.
OECD (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development). (2017). Pensions at a Glance: OECD and G20 Indicators. Available on https:// www.oecd-ilibrary.org/social-issues-migration-health/pensions-at-a-glance-2017_pension_glance-2017-en (Accessed: June 21, 2019)
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birthsdeathsandmarriages/families/articles/thecostoflivinga¬lone/2019-04-04 (Accessed April 20, 2020)
ONS (Office for National Statistics). (2019b). Living Longer: Caring in Later Working Life Examining the Interplay between Caring and Working in Later Life in the UK. Available on https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopula-tionandcommunity/birthsdeathsandmarriages/ageing/articles/liv-inglongerhowourpopulationischangingandwhyitmatters/2019-03-15 (Accessed April 25, 2020)
Phillipson, C., Vickerstaff, S. & Lain D. (2017). Achieving fuller working lives: Labour market and policy issues in the United Kingdom. Austra¬lian Journal of Social Issues 51(2): 187–204.
Quinn, J., Burkhauser, R. & Myers, D. (1990). Passing the Torch: The Influence of Economic Incentives on Work and Retirement. Upjohn Press, [e-journal]. Available on: http://research.upjohn.org/up_press/81 (Accessed October 28, 2019)
Radl, J. (2013). Labour market exit and social stratification in Western Eu¬rope: The effects of social class and gender on the timing of retirement. European Sociological Review 29: 654–668. doi: 10.1093/esr/jcs04
Ragin, C. 1999. Using qualitative comparative analysis to study causal complexity. Health Services Research 34(5): 1225–1239.
Riessman, C. K. (2004). Narrative analysis. In M. S. Lewis-Beck, A. Bryman, & T. Futing Liao (eds.), The SAGE Encyclopaedia of Social Science Research Methods (pp. 705–709). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Rudolph, K. E. & Eaton, W. W. (2016). Previous anxiety and depression as risk factors for early labour force exit. Journal of Epidemiology and Com¬munity Health 70(4): 390–395.
Scales, J. & Scase, R. (2000). Fit and Fifty. Swindon: Economic and Social Research Council.
Settersten, R. A. (2003). Propositions and controversies in life-course scholarship. In R. A. Settersten (ed.), Invitation to the Life Course. Toward New Understanding of Later Life (pp. 15–48). New York, NY: Baywood.
Smeaton, D., Barnes, H. & Vegeris, S. (2017). Does retirement offer a ‘win¬dow of opportunity’ for healthy lifestyle change? Views from workers on the cusp of retirement. Journal of Aging and Health 29(1): 25–44.
Snell, K. D. M. (2017). The rise of living alone and loneliness in history. Social History 42(1): 2–28. doi: 10.1080/03071022.2017.125609330
Stafford, M., Cooper, R., Cadar, D., Murray, E., Richards, M., Stansfeld, S., Zaninotto, P., Head, J. & Kuh, D. (2017). Physical and cognitive capa¬bility in mid-adulthood as determinants of retirement and extended working life in a British cohort study. Scandinavian Journal of Work Environment & Health 43(1): 15–23.
Swain, J. (2018). A Hybrid Approach to Thematic Analysis in Qualitative Research: Using a Practical Example. Sage Research Methods Cases. London: Sage. Online ISBN: 9781526435477. doi: http://dx.doi.org/ 10.4135/9781526435477
Truxillo, D., Finkelstein, L., Pytlovany, A. & Jenkins, J. (2018). Age discrim¬ination at work: A review of the research and recommendation for the future. In A J. Colella & E B. King (eds.) The Oxford Handbook of Work¬place Discrimination (pp. 129–142). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Vandervoort, D. (2000). Social isolation and gender. Current Psychology 19(3): 229–236.
Verd, J. M. & Lo?pez, M. (2011). The rewards of a qualitative approach to life-course research. The example of the effects of social protection pol¬icies on career paths. Qualitative Social Research, 12(3), Art 15. Avail¬able on http://www.qualitative-research.net/index.php/fqs/article/ view/1753/3259 (Accessed: September 8, 2020)
Vickerstaff, S. & Cox, J. (2005). Retirement and risk: The individualisation of retirement experiences. The Sociological Review 53(1): 77–95.
Banks, J., Emmerson, C. & Oldfield, Z. (2005). Preparing for Retirement: The Pension Arrangements and Retirement Expectations of those Approaching State Pension Age in England. Institute for Fiscal Studies Working Paper WP05/13. https://www.ifs.org.uk/wps/wp0513.pdf (Accessed: Sep-tember 8, 2020)
Banks, J. & Smith, J. P. (2012). International comparisons in health econom¬ics: Evidence from aging studies. Annual Review of Economics 4: 57–81.
Beehr, T. A. (2014). To retire or not to retire: That is not the question. Journal of Organizational Behavior, (Special Issue) 35(8): 1093–108.
Brown, P. & Vickerstaff, S. (2011). Health subjectivities and labor market par¬ticipation: Pessimism and older workers’ attitudes and narratives around retirement in the United Kingdom. Research on Aging 33(5): 529–550.26
Candappa, M. (2017). Case studies. In J. Swain (ed.), Designing Research in Education: Concepts and Methodologies (pp. 173–192). London: Sage.
Carpentieri, J. & Elliott, J. (2014). Understanding healthy aging using a qualitative approach: The value of narratives and individual biogra¬phies. In D. Kuh, R. Cooper, & R. Hardy (eds.), A Life Course Approach to Healthy Ageing (pp. 118–129). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Carpentieri, J. D., Goodman, A., Parsons, S., Patalay, P. & Swain, J. (2017). Lifetime Poverty and Attitudes to Retirement among a Cohort Born in 1958. London: Centre for Longitudinal Studies. Available on https://cls. ucl.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/JRF-retirement-report-FI-NAL-August-3-20172.pdf (Accessed: June 10, 2019)
Du Prel, J-B., Schrettenbrunner, C. & Hasselhorm, H. M. (2019). Vertical and horizontal social inequality and motivations for early retirement. Zietschrift fur Gerontologie und Geriatrie 52(1): 3–13.
DWP (Department for Work and Pensions). (2017). Fuller Working Lives: Evidence Base 2017. Available on https://www.gov.uk/government/ publications/fuller-working-lives-evidence-base-2017 (Accessed: June 21, 2019).
Ebbinghaus, B. & Radl, J. (2015). Pushed out prematurely? Comparing ob¬jectively forced exits and subjective assessments of involuntary retire¬ment across Europe. Research in Social Stratification and Mobility 41(9): 115–130.
Ekerdt, D. J. (2009). Frontiers of research on work and retirement. The Jour¬nals of Gerontology: Series B. 65B(1): 65–80.
Elder, G. (1994). Time, human agency, and social change: Perspectives on the life course. Social Psychology Quarterly 57(1): 4–15.
Elder, G. H. & Giele, J. Z. (eds.) (2009). The Craft of Life Course Research. New York: Guilford Press.
Elder, G. H., Johnson, M. K. & Crosnoe, R. (2003). The emergence and development of life course theory. In J. T. Mortimer & M. Shanahan (eds.) Handbook of the Life Course (pp. 3–19). New York, NY: Kluwer Publishers.
Elliott, J. (2005). Using Narrative in Social Research: Qualitative and Quantita¬tive Approaches. London: Sage.
Emirbayer, M. & Mische A. (1998). What is agency? American Journal of Sociology 42(4): 962–1023.27
Esping-Andersen, G. (1996). Welfare States in Transition: National Adaptions in Global Economies. London: Sage.
Evans, K., Schoon, I. & Weale, M. (2013). Can lifelong learning reshape life chances? British Journal of Educational Studies 61(1): 25–47.
Evans, K. & Biasin, C. (2017). Exploring agency, learning and identity in women’s life trajectories in United Kingdom and Italy – Exploración de la agencia, el aprendizaje y la identidad en las trayectorias de vida de las mujeres en el Reino Unido e Italia. Revista Española de Educación Comparada 29: 15–32.
Fleischmann, M., Koster, F., Dukstra, P. & Schipppers, J. (2013). Hello pen¬sion, goodbye tension? The impact of work and institutions on older workers’ labor market participation in Europe. International Journal of Ageing and Later Life 8(2): 33–67.
Formosa, M. (2014). Four decades of universities of the third age: Past, present, future. Ageing & Society 34(1): 42–66.
Foster, L. (2018). Active ageing, pensions and retirement in the UK. Journal of Population Ageing 11(2): 117–132.
Haddad, M. (2006). Civic responsibility and patterns of voluntary partic¬ipation around the world. Comparative Political Studies 39: 1220–1242.
Hallerod, B., Orestig, J. & Stattin, M. (2013). Leaving the labour market: The impact of exit routes from employment to retirement on health and wellbeing in old age. European Journal of Ageing 10(1): 25–35.
Hamblin, K. A. H. (2010). Changes to policies for work and retirement in EU15 nations (1995–2005): An exploration of policy packages for the 50-plus cohort. International Journal of Ageing and Later Life 5(1): 13–43.
Heinz, W. H., Huinink, J. & Weymann, A. (Eds.). (2009). The Life Course Reader: Individuals and Societies Across Time (Frankfurt, Campus). Available on https://beckassets.blob.core.windows.net/product/readingsam-ple/493922/9783593388052_excerpt_001.pdf (Accessed: June 10, 2019)
Henretta, J. (2003). The life-course perspective on work and retirement. In R. Settersten (ed.), Invitation to the Life Course (pp. 85–106). London: Routledge.
Hofaecker, D., Hess, M. & Koenig, S. (2019). Change of retirement transi¬tion in the political paradigm shift in Europe. Late career and retire¬ment transitions in Germany, Austria, Sweden and Estonia. Zeitschrift fur Gerontologie und Geriatrie 52(1): 40–51.28
Hovbrandt, P., Hakansson, C., Albin, M., Carlsson, G. & Nilsson, K. (2019). Prerequisites and driving forces behind an extended working life among older workers. Scandinavian Journal of Occupational Therapy 26(3): 171–183.
Klinenberg, E. (2012). Going Solo: The Extraordinary Rise and Surprising Ap¬peal of Living Alone. New York, NY: The Penguin Press.
Klinenberg, E. (2016). Social isolation, loneliness, and living alone: Iden¬tifying the risks for public health. American Journal of Public Health 106(5): 786–787 doi: 10.2105/AJPH.2016.303166
Komp, K., Van Tilburg, T. & Van Groenou, M. B. (2010). Paid work be¬tween age 60 and 70 years in Europe: A matter of socio-economic sta¬tus? International Journal of Ageing and Later Life 5(1): 45–75.
Labov, W. & Waletzky, J. (1967). Narrative analysis: Oral versions of per¬sonal experience. In J. Helm (ed.), Essays on the Verbal and Visual Arts (pp. 12–44). Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press.
Lain, D. & Vickerstaff, S. (2015). National Report: United Kingdom. Berlin: Federal Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs (BMAS) and Federal In¬stitute for Occupational Safety and Health. Available on www.jp-de¬mographic.eu (Accessed: June 21, 2019).
Leinonen, T., Martikainen, P. & Myrskylae, M. (2018). Working life and retirement expectancies at age 50 by social class: Period and cohort trends and projections for Finland. Journals of Gerontology Series B-Psy¬chological Sciences and Social Sciences 73(2): 302–313.
Liebow, E. (1967). Tally’s Corner. A Study of Negro Street Corner Men. Bos¬ton, MA: Little, Brown.
McLaughlin, J. S. & Neumark, D. (2018). Barriers to later retirement for men: Physical challenges of work and increases in full retirement age. Research on Aging 40(3): 232–256.
Moen, P. (1996). A life course perspective on retirement, gender and well-being. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology 1(2): 131–144.
OECD (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development). (2017). Pensions at a Glance: OECD and G20 Indicators. Available on https:// www.oecd-ilibrary.org/social-issues-migration-health/pensions-at-a-glance-2017_pension_glance-2017-en (Accessed: June 21, 2019)
ONS (Office for National Statistics). (2019a). The Cost of Living Alone. Avail¬able on https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/29
birthsdeathsandmarriages/families/articles/thecostoflivinga¬lone/2019-04-04 (Accessed April 20, 2020)
ONS (Office for National Statistics). (2019b). Living Longer: Caring in Later Working Life Examining the Interplay between Caring and Working in Later Life in the UK. Available on https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopula-tionandcommunity/birthsdeathsandmarriages/ageing/articles/liv-inglongerhowourpopulationischangingandwhyitmatters/2019-03-15 (Accessed April 25, 2020)
Phillipson, C., Vickerstaff, S. & Lain D. (2017). Achieving fuller working lives: Labour market and policy issues in the United Kingdom. Austra¬lian Journal of Social Issues 51(2): 187–204.
Quinn, J., Burkhauser, R. & Myers, D. (1990). Passing the Torch: The Influence of Economic Incentives on Work and Retirement. Upjohn Press, [e-journal]. Available on: http://research.upjohn.org/up_press/81 (Accessed October 28, 2019)
Radl, J. (2013). Labour market exit and social stratification in Western Eu¬rope: The effects of social class and gender on the timing of retirement. European Sociological Review 29: 654–668. doi: 10.1093/esr/jcs04
Ragin, C. 1999. Using qualitative comparative analysis to study causal complexity. Health Services Research 34(5): 1225–1239.
Riessman, C. K. (2004). Narrative analysis. In M. S. Lewis-Beck, A. Bryman, & T. Futing Liao (eds.), The SAGE Encyclopaedia of Social Science Research Methods (pp. 705–709). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Rudolph, K. E. & Eaton, W. W. (2016). Previous anxiety and depression as risk factors for early labour force exit. Journal of Epidemiology and Com¬munity Health 70(4): 390–395.
Scales, J. & Scase, R. (2000). Fit and Fifty. Swindon: Economic and Social Research Council.
Settersten, R. A. (2003). Propositions and controversies in life-course scholarship. In R. A. Settersten (ed.), Invitation to the Life Course. Toward New Understanding of Later Life (pp. 15–48). New York, NY: Baywood.
Smeaton, D., Barnes, H. & Vegeris, S. (2017). Does retirement offer a ‘win¬dow of opportunity’ for healthy lifestyle change? Views from workers on the cusp of retirement. Journal of Aging and Health 29(1): 25–44.
Snell, K. D. M. (2017). The rise of living alone and loneliness in history. Social History 42(1): 2–28. doi: 10.1080/03071022.2017.125609330
Stafford, M., Cooper, R., Cadar, D., Murray, E., Richards, M., Stansfeld, S., Zaninotto, P., Head, J. & Kuh, D. (2017). Physical and cognitive capa¬bility in mid-adulthood as determinants of retirement and extended working life in a British cohort study. Scandinavian Journal of Work Environment & Health 43(1): 15–23.
Swain, J. (2018). A Hybrid Approach to Thematic Analysis in Qualitative Research: Using a Practical Example. Sage Research Methods Cases. London: Sage. Online ISBN: 9781526435477. doi: http://dx.doi.org/ 10.4135/9781526435477
Truxillo, D., Finkelstein, L., Pytlovany, A. & Jenkins, J. (2018). Age discrim¬ination at work: A review of the research and recommendation for the future. In A J. Colella & E B. King (eds.) The Oxford Handbook of Work¬place Discrimination (pp. 129–142). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Vandervoort, D. (2000). Social isolation and gender. Current Psychology 19(3): 229–236.
Verd, J. M. & Lo?pez, M. (2011). The rewards of a qualitative approach to life-course research. The example of the effects of social protection pol¬icies on career paths. Qualitative Social Research, 12(3), Art 15. Avail¬able on http://www.qualitative-research.net/index.php/fqs/article/ view/1753/3259 (Accessed: September 8, 2020)
Vickerstaff, S. & Cox, J. (2005). Retirement and risk: The individualisation of retirement experiences. The Sociological Review 53(1): 77–95.